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    content="Computational modeling of dolomite fracture and fluid flow using finite element methods.">

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        <header>
          <h2 class="h2 article-title">Stress Regime Effects on Carbonate Permeability</h2>
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            <img src="./assets/images/rock_fracture.png" alt="Fracture Network in Dolomite" loading="lazy">
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          <h4 class="h4">Impact of Stress Regime Change on the Permeability of a Naturally Fractured Carbonate Buildup
            (Latemar, Dolomites, Northern Italy)</h4>

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            <ul class="author-info-box">
              <li class="author-info-item">
                <span class="info-label">Main Author:</span>
                <span class="info-value">Onyedika Anthony Igbokwe</span>
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              <li class="author-info-item">
                <span class="info-label">Affiliation:</span>
                <span class="info-value">Ruhr University Bochum</span>
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              <li class="author-info-item">
                <span class="info-label">Type:</span>
                <span class="info-value">Research Project</span>
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              <li class="author-info-item">
                <span class="info-label">Co-Author:</span>
                <span class="info-value">J. J. Timothy, A. Kumar, G. Meschke</span>
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              <li class="author-info-item">
                <span class="info-label">Date:</span>
                <span class="info-value">2023</span>
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                <span class="info-label">Journal:</span>
                <span class="info-value">Solid Earth</span>
              </li>
            </ul>

            <h4 class="h4">Project Overview</h4>
            <p>
              This research investigates how changes in tectonic stress regimes affect fracture aperture and
              permeability in carbonate reservoirs, using the Latemar carbonate buildup in northern Italy as an
              analogue.
              By combining detailed outcrop data, finite element geomechanical modeling, and fluid flow simulations, the
              study quantifies how stress from multiple tectonic episodes influenced fracture networks and flow
              pathways.</p>

            <h4 class="h4">Problem & Motivation</h4>
            <p>
              Naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs contain a large share of global oil, gas, and geothermal
              resources. However, predicting permeability is challenging because fracture networks are highly
              heterogeneous and influenced by stress history. Previous models often considered only single stress
              regimes, overlooking the cumulative effects of multiple tectonic episodes.
              This study addresses that gap by modeling stress regime superposition to better understand how
              permeability evolves over geological time.</p>

            <h4 class="h4">Key Contributions</h4>
            <ul class="feature-list">
              <li>Developed a three-phase workflow: outcrop data acquisition (via drone imaging), finite element
                geomechanical aperture modeling, and single-phase flow simulations.</li>
              <li>Simulated two major tectonic stress regimes: subsidence-related (NW–SE) and Alpine compression (N–S).
              </li>
              <li>Quantified the effect of stress regime change on fracture aperture distributions and effective
                permeability tensors.</li>
              <li>Showed that permeability increased by up to 62% under combined tectonic loading compared to baseline
                matrix permeability.</li>
              <li>Demonstrated that fracture density, connectivity, and orientation critically control anisotropy in
                fluid flow.</li>
            </ul>

            <h4 class="h4">Technical Highlights</h4>
            <ul class="tech-list">
              <li>Tools & Platforms: Drone photogrammetry (Agisoft Metashape), ArcGIS for fracture mapping, Kratos FEM
                solver.</li>
              <li>Methods: 2D finite element modeling, computational homogenization, single-phase flow analysis.</li>
              <li>Data Sources: Over 2,000 fractures mapped from Latemar outcrops; five representative fracture
                substructures (FSSs) analyzed.</li>
              <li>Parameters: Young’s modulus = 25 GPa, Poisson’s ratio = 0.30, applied stress magnitudes of 50 MPa
                (subsidence) and 160 MPa (Alpine compression).</li>
            </ul>

            <h4 class="h4">Results & Impact</h4>
            <p>
              The study revealed that stress regime changes significantly alter fracture aperture and permeability
              anisotropy.
              Permeability increased by 37–62%, with stress orientation and fracture density dictating flow pathways.
              The results demonstrate that superimposed tectonic stresses do not cancel each other but instead create
              new permeability effects, underscoring the need for multi-episode stress modeling.
              These findings enhance the ability to predict flow in fractured carbonate reservoirs, with implications
              for hydrocarbon recovery, CO₂ storage, and geothermal energy development.
            </p>

            <h4 class="h4">Publication Details</h4>
            <p>
              <strong>Journal:</strong> Solid Earth<br>
              <strong>Year:</strong> 2024<br>
              <strong>DOI:</strong> <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/se-15-763-2024" target="_blank"
                class="text-link">10.5194/se-15-763-2024</a>
            </p>

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